Trade-offs in thermal and mechanical properties of cellulose films from bacterial cellulose powder induced by ultrasonication duration
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24036/teknomekanik.v9i2.57372Keywords:
bacterial cellulose, cellulose nanocrystal, thermal resistance, ultrasonication durationAbstract
Understanding the trade-offs between thermal and mechanical properties is crucial for optimizing the performance of cellulose films from bacterial cellulose powders (BCP). This study leverages ultrasonication as an eco-friendly method to enhance these properties in BCP-based films while investigating the consequences of varying ultrasonication durations. BCP was sonicated at 250 W for 15 and 30 minutes. Results demonstrated that increasing ultrasonication duration significantly improves tensile strength, toughness, and transparency. The 30-minute sonication yielded the most robust and transparent films, with the highest mechanical strength and toughness. Conversely, while a shorter sonication of 15 minutes slightly improved the thermal stability of the films, increasing Tmax from 317°C for non-sonicated films to 351°C, a longer duration of 30 minutes reduced Tmax to 323°C. This illustrates a clear trade-off between enhancing mechanical properties and maintaining thermal stability. The findings provide insights into a simple yet effective approach for producing environmentally friendly, non-wood-based BC films, emphasizing the need to balance both thermal and mechanical enhancements through controlled ultrasonication.
References
I. A. Laghari et al., “Thermal energy harvesting of highly conductive graphene-enhanced paraffin phase change material,” Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 2023 148:18, vol. 148, no. 18, pp. 9391–9402, Aug. 2023, https://doi.org/10.1007/S10973-023-12336-5
M. A. Koondhar, I. A. Laghari, B. M. Asfaw, R. Reji Kumar, and A. H. Lenin, “Experimental and simulation-based comparative analysis of different parameters of PV module,” Sci. Afr., vol. 16, p. e01197, Jul. 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCIAF.2022.E01197
I. A. Laghari, M. Samykano, A. K. Pandey, K. Kadirgama, and Y. N. Mishra, “Binary composite (TiO2-Gr) based nano-enhanced organic phase change material: Effect on thermophysical properties,” J. Energy Storage, vol. 51, p. 104526, Jul. 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EST.2022.104526
A. Setiawan, P. Puspitasari, M. Tauviqirrahman, D. D. Pramono, and H. Salam, “Performance analysis of soybean oil with CuO/Graphene hybrid additive nanoparticles as cutting fluid on CNC machining processes,” Teknomekanik, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 136–163, Nov. 2025, https://doi.org/10.24036/Teknomekanik.V8I2.42472
D. Rahmadiawan, N. Aslfattahi, N. Nasruddin, R. Saidur, A. Arifutzzaman, and H. A. Mohammed, “MXene Based Palm Oil Methyl Ester as an Effective Heat Transfer Fluid,” Journal of Nano Research, vol. 68, pp. 17–34, 2021, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/JNANOR.68.17
D. Rahmadiawan, H. Abral, N. Nasruddin, and Z. Fuadi, “Stability, Viscosity, and Tribology Properties of Polyol Ester Oil-Based Biolubricant Filled with TEMPO-Oxidized Bacterial Cellulose Nanofiber,” Int. J. Polym. Sci., vol. 2021, no. 1, p. 5536047, Jan. 2021, https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5536047
I. A. Laghari, M. Samykano, A. K. Pandey, K. Kadirgama, and V. V. Tyagi, “Advancements in PV-thermal systems with and without phase change materials as a sustainable energy solution: energy, exergy and exergoeconomic (3E) analytic approach,” Sustain. Energy Fuels, vol. 4, no. 10, pp. 4956–4987, Sep. 2020, https://doi.org/10.1039/D0SE00681E
A. Amri et al., “The conversion of nata de coco bacterial cellulose into cellulose nanofibers using high shear mixer with eco-friendly fluid dynamics method,” Teknomekanik, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 139–155, Dec. 2024, https://doi.org/10.24036/TEKNOMEKANIK.V7I2.32972
D. Rahmadiawan et al., “Enhanced durability and tribological performance of polyvinyl alcohol/layered double hydroxide/tannic acid composites under repeated swelling cycles,” Teknomekanik, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 101–111, Dec. 2024, https://doi.org/10.24036/Teknomekanik.V7I2.32872
T.-T. Huang, D. Rahmadiawan, and S.-C. Shi, “Synthesis and characterization of porous silica and composite films for enhanced CO₂ adsorption: A circular economy approach,” Journal of Materials Research and Technology, vol. 32, pp. 1460–1468, 2024, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.08.003
Kadriadi et al., “A novel active packaging film based on PVAbajakah tampala (Spatholobus littoralis hassk) extract: Enhancing mechanical, UV protection, thermal stability, antimicrobial, and barrier properties,” Food Biosci., vol. 68, p. 106500, 2025, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2025.106500
D. Rahmadiawan, S. C. Shi, N. Aslfattahi, A. N. Fauza, and Z. Fuadi, “Advancements in Cellulose for Eco-Friendly Lubricant Applications: A Review on Tribological Properties,” ACS Omega, vol. 10, no. 33, pp. 36878–36889, Aug. 2025, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.5c05037
D. Klemm et al., “Nanocellulose as a natural source for groundbreaking applications in materials science: Today’s state,” Materials Today, vol. 21, no. 7, pp. 720–748, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2018.02.001
T. C. de Souza et al., “Magnetic Bacterial Cellulose Biopolymers: Production and Potential Applications in the Electronics Sector,” Polymers (Basel)., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 1–15, 2023, https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15040853
A. K. Saleh, H. El-Gendi, G. A. G. Ammar, and T. H. Taha, “Sustainable production of bacterial cellulose from delignified rice straw using Novacetimonas hansenii TGA isolate: Process optimization and membrane characterization,” Int. J. Biol. Macromol., vol. 320, p. 146136, 2025, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.146136
X. Hu et al., “A bacterial cellulose composite separator with high thermal stability and flame retardancy for high-performance lithium ion batteries,” J. Colloid Interface Sci., vol. 679, pp. 633–642, 2025, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2024.10.123
B. Zakani, S. Entezami, D. Grecov, H. Salem, and A. Sedaghat, “Effect of ultrasonication on lubrication performance of cellulose nano-crystalline (CNC) suspensions as green lubricants,” Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 282, no. May 2021, p. 119084, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.119084
D. Rahmadiawan et al., “A Novel Highly Conductive, Transparent, and Strong Pure-Cellulose Film from TEMPO-Oxidized Bacterial Cellulose by Increasing Sonication Power,” Polymers (Basel)., vol. 15, no. 3, p. 643, 2023, https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030643
S. Coseri et al., “One-shot carboxylation of microcrystalline cellulose in the presence of nitroxyl radicals and sodium periodate,” RSC Adv., vol. 5, no. 104, pp. 85889–85897, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra16183e
R. K. Gupta, U. Gnana Moorthy Eswaran, S. Kumar, S. Pipliya, B. Kaur, and P. P. Srivastav, “Synergistic Modification of Starch Polysaccharide via Sequential Treatments With Ultrasonic and Cold Plasma Technology,” J. Food Process. Preserv., vol. 2025, no. 1, p. 9063007, Jan. 2025, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1155/jfpp/9063007
N. Thirunavookarasu, S. Kumar, P. Shetty, A. Shanmugam, and A. Rawson, “Impact of ultrasound treatment on the structural modifications and functionality of carbohydrates – A review,” Carbohydr. Res., vol. 535, p. 109017, 2024, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carres.2023.109017
L. Hu et al., “Transparent and conductive paper from nanocellulose fibers,” Energy Environ. Sci., vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 513–518, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee23635d
H. Abral et al., “Transparent and antimicrobial cellulose film from ginger nanofiber,” Food Hydrocoll., vol. 98, p. 105266, 2020, https://doi.org//doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.105266
M. Nogi, S. Iwamoto, A. N. Nakagaito, and H. Yano, “Optically Transparent Nanofiber Paper,” Advanced Materials, vol. 21, no. 16, pp. 1595–1598, 2009, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200803174
R. A. Ilyas, S. M. Sapuan, and M. R. Ishak, “Isolation and characterization of nanocrystalline cellulose from sugar palm fibres (Arenga Pinnata),” Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 181, pp. 1038–1051, 2018.
R. Zhang, Y. Wang, D. Ma, S. Ahmed, W. Qin, and Y. Liu, “Effects of ultrasonication duration and graphene oxide and nano-zinc oxide contents on the properties of polyvinyl alcohol nanocomposites,” Ultrason. Sonochem., vol. 59, no. August, p. 104731, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.104731
H. Abral, V. Lawrensius, D. Handayani, and E. Sugiarti, “Preparation of nano-sized particles from bacterial cellulose using ultrasonication and their characterization,” Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 191, pp. 161–167, 2018, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.03.026
Q. Lu et al., “Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals via ultrasonication-assisted FeCl3-catalyzed hydrolysis,” Cellulose, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 3497–3506, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-014-0376-2
E. Y. Wardhono, N. Kanani, and A. Alfirano, “A simple process of isolation microcrystalline cellulose using ultrasonic irradiation,” J. Dispers. Sci. Technol., vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 1217–1226, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/01932691.2019.1614947
R. Qu, M. Tang, Y. Wang, D. Li, and L. Wang, “TEMPO-oxidized cellulose fibers from wheat straw: Effect of ultrasonic pretreatment and concentration on structure and rheological properties of suspensions,” Carbohydr. Polym., vol. 255, no. November 2020, p. 117386, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117386
H. Abral et al., “Characterization of compressed bacterial cellulose nanopaper film after exposure to dry and humid conditions,” Journal of Materials Research and Technology, vol. 11, pp. 896–904, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.01.057
J. Epp, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Techniques for Materials Characterization. Elsevier Ltd, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100040-3.00004-3
A. Izumi, T. Kakara, M. W. Otsuki, Y. Shudo, T. Koganezawa, and M. Shibayama, “In situ residual stress analysis in a phenolic resin and copper composite material during curing,” Polymer (Guildf)., vol. 182, no. October, p. 121857, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2019.121857
Q. Meng and T. J. Wang, “Mechanics of Strong and Tough Cellulose Nanopaper,” Appl. Mech. Rev., vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 040801–30, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4044018
M. Asrofi, H. Abral, Y. Kurnia, S. M. Sapuan, and H. Kim, “Effect of duration of sonication during gelatinization on properties of tapioca starch water hyacinth fiber biocomposite,” Int. J. Biol. Macromol., vol. 108, pp. 167–176, 2018.
C. N. Wu and K. C. Cheng, “Strong, thermal-stable, flexible, and transparent films by self-assembled TEMPO-oxidized bacterial cellulose nanofibers,” Cellulose, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 269–283, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-016-1114-8
H. Yousefi, M. Faezipour, S. Hedjazi, M. M. Mousavi, Y. Azusa, and A. H. Heidari, “Comparative study of paper and nanopaper properties prepared from bacterial cellulose nanofibers and fibers/ground cellulose nanofibers of canola straw,” Ind. Crops Prod., vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 732–737, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.08.030
S. Wang et al., “Transparent, Anisotropic Biofilm with Aligned Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibers,” Adv. Funct. Mater., vol. 28, no. 24, pp. 1–10, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201707491
I. A. Udoetok, L. D. Wilson, and J. V. Headley, “Ultra-sonication assisted cross-linking of cellulose polymers,” Ultrason. Sonochem., vol. 42, no. October 2017, pp. 567–576, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2017.12.017
J. A. da Cruz et al., “Poly(vinyl alcohol)/cationic tannin blend films with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities,” Materials Science and Engineering C, vol. 107, no. October 2019, p. 110357, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110357
A. Celzard, W. Zhao, A. Pizzi, and V. Fierro, “Mechanical properties of tannin-based rigid foams undergoing compression,” Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 527, no. 16–17, pp. 4438–4446, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2010.03.091
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Dieter Rahmadiawan, Tio Baskara, Hairul Abral, Eni Sugiarti, Ahmad Novi Muslimin, Shih-Chen Shi, Thiago F. Santos, Imtiaz Ali Laghari (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
